Fabrication and characterisation of Cymbopogan citratus fibre reinforced thermoplastic cassava starch/palm wax composites

Plastics manufactured from fossil fuels have made a substantial contribution to the environmental pollution that has been created by the accumulation of non-biodegradable trash, notably in the form of disposable products. In order to address this issue, renewable natural biopolymers emerge as an ess...

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Main Author:	Kamaruddin, Zatil Hafila
Format:	Thesis
Language:	English English
Published:	2023
Subjects:	T Technology (General)
Online Access:	http://eprints.utem.edu.my/id/eprint/28288/1/Fabrication%20and%20characterisation%20of%20Cymbopogan%20citratus%20fibre%20reinforced%20thermoplastic%20cassava%20starch%20palm%20wax%20composites.pdf http://eprints.utem.edu.my/id/eprint/28288/2/Fabrication%20and%20characterisation%20of%20Cymbopogan%20citratus%20fibre%20reinforced%20thermoplastic%20cassava%20starch%20palm%20wax%20composites.pdf
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id	my-utem-ep.28288
record_format	uketd_dc
institution	Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
collection	UTeM Repository
language	English English
advisor	Jumaidin, Ridhwan
topic	T Technology (General) T Technology (General)
spellingShingle	T Technology (General) T Technology (General) Kamaruddin, Zatil Hafila Fabrication and characterisation of Cymbopogan citratus fibre reinforced thermoplastic cassava starch/palm wax composites
description	Plastics manufactured from fossil fuels have made a substantial contribution to the environmental pollution that has been created by the accumulation of non-biodegradable trash, notably in the form of disposable products. In order to address this issue, renewable natural biopolymers emerge as an essential alternative to replace conventional plastic. Starch is one of the most widely available biopolymers and has been considered to suit many industrial needs owing to its renewability, abundant availability, biodegradability, and competitive price. Starch has also been found to have the ability to create rigid materials, notably thermoplastic starch. Cymbopogan citratus is a versatile plant that is regarded as a renewable source of natural fibre. However, pure thermoplastic starch also has several limitations, including low mechanical strength, long-term stability, and water resistance, limiting its potential applications. Meanwhile, palm wax is recognised as an excellent hydrophobic material because it has the potential to improve hydrophobicity of material. In order to improve the properties of native cassava starch (CS), blending starch matrix with hydrophobic material could enhance the biopolymer's performance. Apart from that, Cymbopogan citratus fibre (CCF) is a potential reinforcement for polymer composites. Hence, characterisations of the Cymbopogan citratus fibre were carried out to analyse its potential as a reinforcement material. Then, several modification methods were employed to enhance the properties of thermoplastic cassava starch (TPCS) i.e.; (1) blending TPCS with palm wax (2) reinforcement of TPCS/PW blend with Cymbopogan citratus fibre, and (3) alkali treatment the CCF fibre in the TPCS/PW blend. Consequently, TPCS/PW/CCF composite was successfully developed by using the hot pressing method. In terms of results, the findings showed that the mechanical properties of the material were improved following the incorporation of palm wax. The thermal properties of the material were slightly improved as the palm wax loading increased from 0 to 15 wt%. The development and characterisation of TPCS with the incorporation of 5 wt.% palm wax loading indicated the optimum strength of mechanical properties. Moreover, improvements in the mechanical properties of the TPCS/PW blends were evidenced after the incorporation of Cymbopogan citratus fibre. The results showed the improved mechanical properties of the TPCS/PW blend with CCF incorporation, with 50 wt.% CCF content yielded the maximum modulus and strength. It is also evident from the X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) results that the crystallinity index of the composites was enhanced with the addition of CCF. In terms of thermal properties, CCF addition improved the material’s thermal stability, as shown by a higher-onset decomposition temperature and ash content. After soil burial for 2 and 4 weeks, the CCF incorporation into TPCS/PW slowed down the biodegradation of the composites. Lastly, the effect of alkali treatment on Cymbopogan citratus fibre into thermoplastic cassava starch/palm wax blends was evaluated. Obtained results indicated that the treated composite showed significant improvement in mechanical properties at 6% NaOH solution where the sample exhibited 19.9 MPa, 30.0 MPa, and 13.3 MPa for tensile, flexural, and impact strength, respectively. It is also evident that alkali treatment of the fibre has led to higher water resistance while soil burial results demonstrated slower biodegradability for the treated composites. Overall, the findings from this study demonstrated that TPCS modified by palm wax, Cymbopogan citratus fibre, and alkali-treated fibre has shown improved functional characteristics than the origin material. Hence, this study enhances the potential of thermoplastic cassava starch to be developed as alternative biodegradable material.
format	Thesis
qualification_name	Doctor of Philosophy (PhD.)
qualification_level	Doctorate
author	Kamaruddin, Zatil Hafila
author_facet	Kamaruddin, Zatil Hafila
author_sort	Kamaruddin, Zatil Hafila
title	Fabrication and characterisation of Cymbopogan citratus fibre reinforced thermoplastic cassava starch/palm wax composites
title_short	Fabrication and characterisation of Cymbopogan citratus fibre reinforced thermoplastic cassava starch/palm wax composites
title_full	Fabrication and characterisation of Cymbopogan citratus fibre reinforced thermoplastic cassava starch/palm wax composites
title_fullStr	Fabrication and characterisation of Cymbopogan citratus fibre reinforced thermoplastic cassava starch/palm wax composites
title_full_unstemmed	Fabrication and characterisation of Cymbopogan citratus fibre reinforced thermoplastic cassava starch/palm wax composites
title_sort	fabrication and characterisation of cymbopogan citratus fibre reinforced thermoplastic cassava starch/palm wax composites
granting_institution	Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
granting_department	Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
publishDate	2023
url	http://eprints.utem.edu.my/id/eprint/28288/1/Fabrication%20and%20characterisation%20of%20Cymbopogan%20citratus%20fibre%20reinforced%20thermoplastic%20cassava%20starch%20palm%20wax%20composites.pdf http://eprints.utem.edu.my/id/eprint/28288/2/Fabrication%20and%20characterisation%20of%20Cymbopogan%20citratus%20fibre%20reinforced%20thermoplastic%20cassava%20starch%20palm%20wax%20composites.pdf
_version_	1818612065860845568
spelling	my-utem-ep.282882024-12-16T08:18:44Z Fabrication and characterisation of Cymbopogan citratus fibre reinforced thermoplastic cassava starch/palm wax composites 2023 Kamaruddin, Zatil Hafila T Technology (General) TA Engineering (General). Civil engineering (General) Plastics manufactured from fossil fuels have made a substantial contribution to the environmental pollution that has been created by the accumulation of non-biodegradable trash, notably in the form of disposable products. In order to address this issue, renewable natural biopolymers emerge as an essential alternative to replace conventional plastic. Starch is one of the most widely available biopolymers and has been considered to suit many industrial needs owing to its renewability, abundant availability, biodegradability, and competitive price. Starch has also been found to have the ability to create rigid materials, notably thermoplastic starch. Cymbopogan citratus is a versatile plant that is regarded as a renewable source of natural fibre. However, pure thermoplastic starch also has several limitations, including low mechanical strength, long-term stability, and water resistance, limiting its potential applications. Meanwhile, palm wax is recognised as an excellent hydrophobic material because it has the potential to improve hydrophobicity of material. In order to improve the properties of native cassava starch (CS), blending starch matrix with hydrophobic material could enhance the biopolymer's performance. Apart from that, Cymbopogan citratus fibre (CCF) is a potential reinforcement for polymer composites. Hence, characterisations of the Cymbopogan citratus fibre were carried out to analyse its potential as a reinforcement material. Then, several modification methods were employed to enhance the properties of thermoplastic cassava starch (TPCS) i.e.; (1) blending TPCS with palm wax (2) reinforcement of TPCS/PW blend with Cymbopogan citratus fibre, and (3) alkali treatment the CCF fibre in the TPCS/PW blend. Consequently, TPCS/PW/CCF composite was successfully developed by using the hot pressing method. In terms of results, the findings showed that the mechanical properties of the material were improved following the incorporation of palm wax. The thermal properties of the material were slightly improved as the palm wax loading increased from 0 to 15 wt%. The development and characterisation of TPCS with the incorporation of 5 wt.% palm wax loading indicated the optimum strength of mechanical properties. Moreover, improvements in the mechanical properties of the TPCS/PW blends were evidenced after the incorporation of Cymbopogan citratus fibre. The results showed the improved mechanical properties of the TPCS/PW blend with CCF incorporation, with 50 wt.% CCF content yielded the maximum modulus and strength. It is also evident from the X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) results that the crystallinity index of the composites was enhanced with the addition of CCF. In terms of thermal properties, CCF addition improved the material’s thermal stability, as shown by a higher-onset decomposition temperature and ash content. After soil burial for 2 and 4 weeks, the CCF incorporation into TPCS/PW slowed down the biodegradation of the composites. Lastly, the effect of alkali treatment on Cymbopogan citratus fibre into thermoplastic cassava starch/palm wax blends was evaluated. Obtained results indicated that the treated composite showed significant improvement in mechanical properties at 6% NaOH solution where the sample exhibited 19.9 MPa, 30.0 MPa, and 13.3 MPa for tensile, flexural, and impact strength, respectively. It is also evident that alkali treatment of the fibre has led to higher water resistance while soil burial results demonstrated slower biodegradability for the treated composites. Overall, the findings from this study demonstrated that TPCS modified by palm wax, Cymbopogan citratus fibre, and alkali-treated fibre has shown improved functional characteristics than the origin material. Hence, this study enhances the potential of thermoplastic cassava starch to be developed as alternative biodegradable material. 2023 Thesis http://eprints.utem.edu.my/id/eprint/28288/ http://eprints.utem.edu.my/id/eprint/28288/1/Fabrication%20and%20characterisation%20of%20Cymbopogan%20citratus%20fibre%20reinforced%20thermoplastic%20cassava%20starch%20palm%20wax%20composites.pdf text en public http://eprints.utem.edu.my/id/eprint/28288/2/Fabrication%20and%20characterisation%20of%20Cymbopogan%20citratus%20fibre%20reinforced%20thermoplastic%20cassava%20starch%20palm%20wax%20composites.pdf text en validuser https://plh.utem.edu.my/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=124150 phd doctoral Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Jumaidin, Ridhwan

Fabrication and characterisation of Cymbopogan citratus fibre reinforced thermoplastic cassava starch/palm wax composites

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