Community Environmental and Tourism Initiatives: A Case From Sri Lankan Perspective
The community tourism approach has become a popular consideration for acquiring active community participation in natural resource management, particularly in mitigating impacts of unsustainable livelihood practices. In Sri Lanka, even though tourism is not new, its potential in delivering benefits...
Saved in:
Main Author: | |
---|---|
Format: | Thesis |
Language: | eng eng |
Published: |
2011
|
Subjects: | |
Online Access: | https://etd.uum.edu.my/2791/1/Konara_Mudiyanselage_Monju.pdf https://etd.uum.edu.my/2791/2/1.Konara_Mudiyanselage_Monju.pdf |
Tags: |
Add Tag
No Tags, Be the first to tag this record!
|
id |
my-uum-etd.2791 |
---|---|
record_format |
uketd_dc |
institution |
Universiti Utara Malaysia |
collection |
UUM ETD |
language |
eng eng |
advisor |
Kasim, Azilah |
topic |
GV Recreation Leisure |
spellingShingle |
GV Recreation Leisure Ratnayake, Konara Mudiyanselage Monju Iraj Community Environmental and Tourism Initiatives: A Case From Sri Lankan Perspective |
description |
The community tourism approach has become a popular consideration for acquiring active community participation in natural resource management, particularly in mitigating impacts of unsustainable livelihood practices. In Sri Lanka, even though tourism is not new, its potential in delivering benefits to the local community is still a subject of great debate. The problem central to this study evolves from this scenario. The study investigated the community environmental and tourism initiatives (CETIs) in Sri Lanka and their effectiveness in establishing and maintaining relationships between participatory natural resource management efforts and tourism, and to stimulate alternating livelihoods of the marginalised communities. This exploratory study employed qualitative methodology and followed the case study approach which allows the use of mixed-method techniques for the data collection. Presentation and analysis were based on evidence from multiple (six) cases which provided adequate background for critical understanding. The study found that CETIs in Sri Lanka are better at improving awareness in sustainable use of natural resources than at empowering local communities to become self-reliant. The CETIs failed to facilitate community access to benefits of developing tourism in their respective localities, thereby denying them of raised incomes and improved standards of living. Identified barriers of long term success of CETIs include weaknesses in planning processes, lack of supportive policy and institutional framework, generic issues in environmental legislation, inadequate industry linkages, top-down decision-making, lack of domestic capital formation, and limitations in rural labour and shortcomings in capacity development. Some CETIs were found to have collapsed due to weak internal organisation and management, while others survived merely due to their close proximity to existing tourist regions/routes. Inconsistent financial performance due to seasonality of tourism and the overall performance of country's tourism industry were the reasons for the above scenarios. Based on the findings, the study highlighted the pressing need for decisive measures at policy and planning level, and proposed a model of an environment that could be conducive for communities to participate successfully in tourism development in Sri Lanka. |
format |
Thesis |
qualification_name |
Ph.D. |
qualification_level |
Doctorate |
author |
Ratnayake, Konara Mudiyanselage Monju Iraj |
author_facet |
Ratnayake, Konara Mudiyanselage Monju Iraj |
author_sort |
Ratnayake, Konara Mudiyanselage Monju Iraj |
title |
Community Environmental and Tourism Initiatives: A Case From Sri Lankan Perspective |
title_short |
Community Environmental and Tourism Initiatives: A Case From Sri Lankan Perspective |
title_full |
Community Environmental and Tourism Initiatives: A Case From Sri Lankan Perspective |
title_fullStr |
Community Environmental and Tourism Initiatives: A Case From Sri Lankan Perspective |
title_full_unstemmed |
Community Environmental and Tourism Initiatives: A Case From Sri Lankan Perspective |
title_sort |
community environmental and tourism initiatives: a case from sri lankan perspective |
granting_institution |
Universiti Utara Malaysia |
granting_department |
College of Law, Government and International Studies (COLGIS) |
publishDate |
2011 |
url |
https://etd.uum.edu.my/2791/1/Konara_Mudiyanselage_Monju.pdf https://etd.uum.edu.my/2791/2/1.Konara_Mudiyanselage_Monju.pdf |
_version_ |
1747827430029000704 |
spelling |
my-uum-etd.27912016-04-27T07:53:46Z Community Environmental and Tourism Initiatives: A Case From Sri Lankan Perspective 2011 Ratnayake, Konara Mudiyanselage Monju Iraj Kasim, Azilah College of Law, Government and International Studies (COLGIS) Awang Had Salleh Graduate School of Sciences GV Recreation Leisure The community tourism approach has become a popular consideration for acquiring active community participation in natural resource management, particularly in mitigating impacts of unsustainable livelihood practices. In Sri Lanka, even though tourism is not new, its potential in delivering benefits to the local community is still a subject of great debate. The problem central to this study evolves from this scenario. The study investigated the community environmental and tourism initiatives (CETIs) in Sri Lanka and their effectiveness in establishing and maintaining relationships between participatory natural resource management efforts and tourism, and to stimulate alternating livelihoods of the marginalised communities. This exploratory study employed qualitative methodology and followed the case study approach which allows the use of mixed-method techniques for the data collection. Presentation and analysis were based on evidence from multiple (six) cases which provided adequate background for critical understanding. The study found that CETIs in Sri Lanka are better at improving awareness in sustainable use of natural resources than at empowering local communities to become self-reliant. The CETIs failed to facilitate community access to benefits of developing tourism in their respective localities, thereby denying them of raised incomes and improved standards of living. Identified barriers of long term success of CETIs include weaknesses in planning processes, lack of supportive policy and institutional framework, generic issues in environmental legislation, inadequate industry linkages, top-down decision-making, lack of domestic capital formation, and limitations in rural labour and shortcomings in capacity development. Some CETIs were found to have collapsed due to weak internal organisation and management, while others survived merely due to their close proximity to existing tourist regions/routes. Inconsistent financial performance due to seasonality of tourism and the overall performance of country's tourism industry were the reasons for the above scenarios. Based on the findings, the study highlighted the pressing need for decisive measures at policy and planning level, and proposed a model of an environment that could be conducive for communities to participate successfully in tourism development in Sri Lanka. 2011 Thesis https://etd.uum.edu.my/2791/ https://etd.uum.edu.my/2791/1/Konara_Mudiyanselage_Monju.pdf application/pdf eng validuser https://etd.uum.edu.my/2791/2/1.Konara_Mudiyanselage_Monju.pdf application/pdf eng public Ph.D. doctoral Universiti Utara Malaysia Addison, L. (1996). An Approach to Community-based Tourism Planning in the Baffin Region, Canada’s Far North: A Retrospective. In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands (Eds.). Practising Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 296-312). USA: John Wiley & Sons. Amy, D. (1987). The Politics of Environmental Mediation. New York: Columbia University Press. Andereck, K.L., Valentine, K.M., Knopf, R.C. and Vogt, C.A. (2005). Residents’ Perceptions of Community Tourism Impacts. Annals of Tourism Research 32(4), 1056-1076. Andriotis, K. and Vaughan D.R. (2003). Urban Residents’ Attitudes Towards Tourism development: The case of Crete. Journal of Travel Research, 42 (2): 172-185. Anne, L.D. (2001). Trent Focus for Research and Development in Primary Health Care: An Introduction to Qualitative Analysis. UK: Trent Focus. Retrieved on from: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/9175405/Qualitative-Data-Analysis Ap, J. (1990). Residents Perceptions Research on the Social Impacts of Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 17, 610-616. Ap, J. (1992). Residents’ Perceptions of Tourism Impacts. Annals of Tourism Research, 19 (4), 665-690. Aref, F., Redzuan, M. and Emby, Z. (2009). Barriers of Community Power for Tourism Development in Shiraz, Iran. European Journal of Scientific Research, 28(3), 443-450. Retrieved from: http://www.eurojournals .com/ejsr.htm Arua, E.O. (2004). Improving rural development administration in Nigeria. Agricultural Administration, 5 (4), 281-292 Ashley, C. and Garland, E. (1994). Promoting Community-based Tourism Development: Why, What and How? Research Discussion Paper No. 4. October, 1994. Namibia: Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Retrieved from: http://www.met.gov.na/publications/research/rdp_0004.pdf Ashley, C. and Roe, D. (1998). Enhancing community involvement in wildlife tourism: Issues and challenges. Wildlife and Development Series No. 11. London: International Institute for Environment and Development Ashley, C., Roe, D. and Goodwin, H. (2001). Pro-Poor Tourism Strategies: Making Tourism Work for the Poor. London: ODI. Asian Tribune (2009). Sri Lanka: Britain further relax travel advisory. Retrieved from: http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2009/09/22/sri-lanka-britain-further-relax-travel-advisory Aspen Institute (1996). Measuring Community Capacity Building: A Workbook-in-Progress for Rural Communities. (Version 3). Washington DC: Aspen Institute. Atkinson, B. and Heath, A. (1990). Further thoughts on second-order family therapy: This time it's personal. Family Process, 29 (2), 145-156. Atkinson, B., and Heath, A. (1990b). The limits of explanation and evaluation. Family Process. 29(2), 164-168. Atkinson, B., Heath, A., and Chenail, R. (1991). Qualitative research and the legitimization of knowledge. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 17(2), 175-180. Babbie, E. (1998). The practice of social research (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Bandara, H.M. (2001). Tourism Development Planning in Developing Countries: A Critique. Sri Lanka: Stamford Lake. Bandara, H.M. (2003). Tourism Planning in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka: Stamford Lake. Blau, P.M. (1964). Exchange and Power in Social Life. USA: John Wiley & Sons. Boo, E. (1990). Ecotourism: the potentials and pitfalls (Vol. 2). Washington D.C.: World Wildlife Fund. Bouma, G.D. (1996). The Research Process (3rd ed.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Bourke, L. and Luloff A.E. (1996). Rural Tourism Development: Are Communities in Southwest Rural Pennsylvania Ready to Participate? In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands (Eds.), Practising Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 277-295). USA: John Wiley & Sons. Bramwell, B. and Lane, B. (1999). Collaboration and Partnerships for Sustainable Tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 7, 179-181. Brandon, K. and Margoluis, R. (1996). Structuring Ecotourism Success: Framework for Analysis: The 1996 ISTF Conference, The Ecotourism Equation, 12-14 April. New Haven: IC. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. Briedenhann, J. Wickens, E. (2004). Tourism routs as a tool for the economic development of rural areas - Vibrant hope or impossible dream? Tourism Management, 25, 71-79. Brohman, J. (1996). New directions in tourism for Third World development. Annals of Tourism Research, 23, 48-70. Burns, P.M. (2004). Tourism Planning: A third way? Annals of Tourism Research, 31 (1), 24-43. Butler, R.W. (1980). The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer, 24 (1): 5-12. Butterfield, K.D., Reed, R. and Lemak, D.J. (2004). An Inductive Model of Collaboration from the Stakeholders’ Perspective. Business Society, 43(2), 162-195. CEA (1994). Conservation Management Plan: Muthurajawela Marsh and Negombo Lagoon. Colombo: Central Environmental Authority and Euroconsult. Chambers, R. (1994). The Origins and Practice of Participatory Rural Appraisal. World Development, 22(7), 953-969. Chandralal, K.P.L. (2010). Impacts of Tourism and Community Attitude towards Tourism: A Case Study in Sri Lanka. South Asian Journal of Tourism and Heritage, 3 (2): 41-49. Chapman, M and Karryn, K. (2001). Lessons for Community Capacity Building: A Summary of Research Evidence. Edinburgh: Research Department, Scottish Homes, Thistle House. Cheong, S. M., and Miller, M. L. (2000). Power and tourism: A Foucauldian observation. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(2), 371-390. Chunn, M. (1997). Seven voices: Tales of madness and mirth. Auckland: PEP. Coccossis, H. (1996). Tourism and sustainability: perspectives and implications. In G.K. Priestly, J. A. Edwards and H. Coccossis (Eds.) Sustainable Tourism? European Experiences (pp. 1-21). Oxford: CAB International. Colchester, M. (1994). Salvaging nature: indigenous people, protected areas and bio-diversity conservation. [discussion paper], Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. Coleman, J. (1990). Systems of Social Exchange. Journal of Mathematical Sociology 2, 145-63. Coll, R. K. and Chapman, R. (2000). Choices of methodology for cooperative education researchers. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 1 (1-8). Retrieved from: http://www.apjce.org/volume_1/volume _1_1 _pp _1 _8.pdf Community Tourism Summit (2003). BEST summery report. Pocantico: New York. Retrieved from: http://www.mona.uwi.edu/jct/documents/ruempol.pdf Conlin, M. V. (1996). Revitalizing Bermuda: Tourism Policy Planning in a Mature Island Destination. In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands (Eds.), Practising Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 80-102). USA: John Wiley & Sons. Cousins, C. (2002). Getting to the “truth”: Issues in contemporary qualitative research. Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 42, 192-204. Cresswell, J.W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. California: Sage. David, M. and Sutton, C. D. (2004). Social Research: The Basics. London: Sage. de Araujo, L. M. and Bramwell, B. (1999). Stakeholder Assessment and Collaborative Tourism Planning: The Case of Brazil’s Costa Dourada Project. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17 (3&4), 356-372. Department of Census and Statistics (2009). Social Conditions of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka: Dept. of Census & Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.statistics .gov.lk/social/social%20conditions.pdf Department of Census and Statistics (2009). Population and Housing Statistics. Sri Lanka: Dept. of Census & Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.statistics .gov.lk/PopHouSat/index.asp de Silva (2009). Ecotourism – Sri Lanka’s Potential. Sri Lanka, Ecotourism Society of Sri Lanka (ESSL). Retrived from, de_Silva_'04-Ecotourism-Sri_Lanka's _Potential .pdf Doxey, G. V. (1975). A causation theory of visitor irritants, methodology and research inferences. Travel and Tourism Research Associations Sixth Annual Conference Proceedings (pp. 195-198). TTRA, San Diego Dredge, D. (2006). Policy networks and the local organisation of tourism. Tourism Management, 27, 269-280. Elliott, J. (1999). An Introduction to Sustainable Development (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Emerton, L. and Kekulananda, L.D.C.B. (2003). Assessment of the Economic Value of Muthurajawela Wetland. Occasional Papers of IUCN Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka: IUCN. ESCAP Virtual Conference (2009). The Muthurajawela Marsh and Negombo lagoon wetland ecosystem. ESCAP. Retrieved from: http://www.unescap .org/DRPAD/VC /conference/bg_lk_5_mmn.htm Evans-Smith, D. (1994). National Ecotourism Strategy. Canberra: Commonwealth Department of Tourism. Fallon, F. (2001). Conflict, Power and Tourism on Lombok. Current Issues in Tourism, 4(6), 481-502. Retrieved from: http://www.commerce.otago .ac.nz/tourism/current-issues/homepage.htm Fararo, T. (2001). Social Action Systems. Westport: Praeger. Faulkner, B. (1998). Tourism Development Options in Indonesia and the Case of Agro-Tourism in Central Java. In E. Laws, B. Faulkner, and G. Moscardo (Eds.), Embracing and Managing Change in Tourism: International Case Studies (pp. 202-219). USA: Routledge. Forstner, K. (2004). Community Ventures and Access to Markets: The Role of Intermediaries in Marketing Rural Tourism Products. Development Policy Review, 22(5), 497-514. FRAME (2007). Looking for Successful Community-based Tourism Projects. Retrieved from: http://www.frameweb.org/ev_en.php Fredline, L., Deery, M., and Joyo, L. (2005). Social Impacts of Tourism on Communities (Final Report): Coles Bay/Freycinet Survey. Australia: Tourism Tasmania and Sustainable Tourism (CRC). Fuller, D., Buultjens, J., Cummings, E. (2005). Ecotourism and indigenous micro-enterprise formation in northern Australia opportunities and constraints. Tourism Management, 26, 891–904. Ganewatte, P., Samaranayake, R.A.D.B., Samarakoon, J.I., White, A.T. and Haywood, K. (1995) .The Coastal Environmental Profile of Rekawa Lagoon, Sri Lanka. Colombo: Coastal Resources Management Project. Gartner, W. C. (1996). Tourism Development: Principles and Processes, and Policies. New York: John Wiley & Son. Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine. Godfrey, K. B. (1996). Towards Sustainability?: Tourism in the Republic of Cyprus. In L. C. Harrison and W. Husbands (Eds.). Practising Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 58-79). USA: John Wiley & Sons. Goeldner, C. R., Ritchi, J. R., and McIntosh, R. W. (2005). Tourism: Principles, Practices, and Philosophies, (8th Ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Goodwin, H. (1998). Sustainable Tourism and Poverty Elimination: A Discussion Paper, DFID/DETR Workshop on Sustainable Tourism and Poverty. UK. 13 October 1998 Goodwin, H. (2009). Community-Based Tourism: a success? Retrieved from: http://haroldgoodwin.blogware.com/blog/_archives/2009/3/1/4108659.html Goodwin, H. and Santilli, R. (2009). Community-Based Tourism: a success? ICRT Occasional Paper 11. ICRT & GTZ: UK. Retrieved from http://www .haroldgoodwin.info/uploads/CBTaSuccessPubpdf.pdf Gonsalves, P. S. (1987). Alternative: the evaluation of a concept and establishment of a network. Tourism Recreation Research, 12, 9-12. Government of Sri Lanka (1987). Provincials Act No. 42 of 1987. Colombo: Government Press. Graburn, N.H.H. (1989). Tourism: The sacred journey (2nd ed.). In V.L. Smith (Ed.) Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism (pp.21-36). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Greffe, X. (1994). Is rural tourism a lever for economic and social development? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 2, 23-40. Guba, E. (1990). The paradigm dialog. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Guba, E.G. and Lincoln, Y.S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105-117). London: Sage. Gunn, C.A. (1988). Tourism Planning. (2nd Ed.). London: Taylor & Francis. Gunn, C. A. (1994). Tourism Planning: Basics, Concepts, Cases. Washington D.C: Taylor & Francis. Gurusinghe, P. (2006). Challenges in Developing Community-based Ecotourism Projects in Sri Lanka. 4th Asia-Pacific Ecotourism Conference (APeco), Taman Negara National Park, Malaysia, held in November, 2006. Retrieved from http://www.apeco2006.com Hair, J. F., Money, H. A., Samouel, P. and Page, M. (2003). Research Methods for Business. England: John Wiley & Sons. Hall, C. M. (1991). Introduction to Tourism in Australia: Challenges and Opportunities. Australia: Longman. Hall, C. M. (1999) Rethinking Collaboration and Partnership: A Public Policy Perspective. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 7(3&4), 274-289. Hall, C. M. (2000). Tourism Planning: Policies, Processes and Relationships. England: Pearson. Hall, C. M. and Mc Arthur, S. (1998). Integrated Heritage Management. London: Stationary Office. Halstead, L. (2003). Making community-based tourism work: An assessment of factors contributing to successful community-owned tourism development in Caprivi, Namibia. DEA Research Discussion Paper, Number 60, July 2003. Namibia: Directorate of Environmental Affairs, Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Retrieved from :http://www.met.gov.na/programmes/wild /WILDresearchdiscussionpapers/RDP%2060%20-%20Making%20CBT%20 work%20Halstead.pdf Hancock, B. (1998). Trent Focus for Research and Development in Primary Health Care: An Introduction to Qualitative Research. UK: Trent Focus. Retrieved from: http://faculty.uccb.ns.ca/pmacintyre/course_pages/MBA603/MBA603 _files/IntroQualitativeResearch.pdf Haywood, K. M. (1988). Responsible and responsive tourism planning in the community. Tourism Management, 9 (2), 105–118. Hawkins, D. and Cunningham, J. (1996). It is “Never-Neverland” When Interest Groups Prevail: Disney’s America Project, Prince William County, Virginia, USA. In L. C. Harrison and W. Husbands (Eds.). Practising Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 350-365). USA: John Wiley & Sons. Heath, E. and Wall, G. (1992). Marketing Tourism Destinations: A Strategic Planning Approach. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Heath, A.W. (1997). The proposal in qualitative research [41 paragraphs]. The Qualitative Report [On-line serial], 3(1). Retrieved from: http://www.nova .edu/ssss/QR/QR3-1/heath.html Homans, G. (1961). Social Behaviour. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. Honey, M. (1999). Eco-tourism and Sustainable Development: Who owns Paradise? Washington D.C.: Island Press Hong, E. (1985). See the Third World While it Lasts: The Social and Environmental Impacts of Tourism with Special Reference to Malaysia. Penang: Consumer Association of Penang. Hoogvorst, A.A. (2003). Survival strategies of people in a Sri Lankan wetland: Livelihood, health and nature conservation in Muthurajawela. Ph.D. thesis, Netherlands: Wageningen University. Husband, W. and Harrison, L. C. (1996). Practicing Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development. In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands (Eds.). Practicing Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 1-15). USA: John Wiley & Sons. Inskeep, E. (1991). Tourism Planning: an integrated and sustainable development approach. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Inskeep, E. (1994). National and regional tourism planning: Methodologies and case studies. London: Routledge. Jamal, T., and Getz, D. (1995). Collaboration Theory and Community Tourism Planning. Annals of Tourism Research, 22, 186-204. Jamal, T. B., Stein, S. M. and Harper, T. L. (2002). Beyond Labels: Pragmatic Planning in Multi-stakeholder Tourism-Environment Conflict. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 22(164), 164-177. Jayasena, W. G. (2002). Sri Lanka Titling and Related Services Project: Benchmark Socio Economic Study of Rural Areas- LTRS Project. Sri Lanka: Ministry of Land and Land Development. Jenkins, C. L. (1991). Tourism Policies in Developing Countries. In S. Medlik (Ed.). Managing Tourism (pp. 269-277). UK: Butterworth-Heinemann. Jenkins, C. L. (1991). Role of Government in Tourism Policy Formulation. In L. J. Lickorish, A. Jefferson, J. Bodlender, and C. L. Jenkins (Eds.). Developing Tourism destinations: Policies and Perspectives (pp. 64-66). UK: Longman. Jennings, G. (2001). Tourism Research. Australia: John Wiley & Sons. Jiaying Zhang, J., Inbakaran, R.J. and Jackson, M.S. (2006). Understanding Community Attitudes Towards Tourism and Host—Guest Interaction in the Urban—Rural Border Region. Tourism Geographies, 8 (2): 182-204. Joppe, M. (1996). Everything must be Converted to Everything Else: An Ecosystem Approach to Tourism Development in North Humberland County, Ontario, Canada. In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands (Eds.). Practising Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 313-329). USA: John Wiley & Sons. Jungwirth, M. (1997). Structural and Organisational Constraints on the Development of a Community Tourism Systems: A Case Study of the Bella Coola Valley, BC. Unpublished Masters Thesis. Canada, B.A. Simon Fraser University. Kasim, A. and Radha, J.Z.R.R.R. (2007). Stakeholder Collaboration and Partnerships: Recommendation for Bujang Valley: The 2nd International Conference on Tourism and Hospitality, 31 July-2August, 2007 (pp. 441-448). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: University Utara Malaysia. Kayat, K. (2007). Heritage tourism and local residents: The 2nd International Conference on Tourism and Hospitality, 31 July-2August, 2007 (pp. 283-292). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: University Utara Malaysia. Keane, M. J. (2002). Economic development capacity amongst small rural communities. Journal of Rural Studies, 6(3), 291-301. Keane, M. J. and O Cinneide, M. S. (2002). Promoting economic development amongst rural communities. Journal of Rural Studies, 2(4), 281-289. Keane, M. J., OCinneide, M. S and Cunningham, C. (1996). Setting the Stage to Balance Competing Trade-offs: Identifying Issues Affecting Tourism Development and Management on Inis Oirr. In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands (Eds.). Practising Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 174-192). USA: John Wiley & Sons. Konstantinos, A. (2009). Community Attitudes towards Tourism Development. SciTopics. Retrieved from, http://www.scitopics.com/Community_Attitudes_ towards_Tourism_ Development.html Kiss, A. (2004). Is Community-Based Ecotourism a Good Use of Biodiversity Conservation Funds? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19(5), 232-237. Krauss, S. E. (2005). Research paradigms and meaning making: A primer. The Qualitative Report, 10(4). 758-770. Retrieved from http://www.nova .edu/ssss/QR/QR10-4/krauss.pdf Kularatne, W.G. (2005). Community Development in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan Journal of Librarianship and Information Management, 2(1), 1-4. Ladkin, A. and Bertramini, A. M. (2002). Collaborative Tourism Planning: A Case Study of Cusco, Peru. Current Issues in Tourism, 5(2), 71-93. Lane, B. (1991). Sustainable Tourism: A New Concept for the Interpreter. Interpretation Journal, 49, 1-4. Lankford, S.V., Knowles-Lankford, J. and Povey, D.C. (1996). Instilling Community Confidence and Commitment in Tourism: Community Planning and Public Participation in Government Camp, Oregon, USA. In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands (Eds.). Practising Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 330-349). USA: John Wiley & Sons. Lea, J. (1998). Tourism and Development in the Third World. London: Routledge. Le Pelley, B., and Laws, E. (1998). A Stakeholder-benefits Approach to Tourism management in a Historic City Centre: The Centerbury City Centre Initiative. In E. Laws, B. Faulkner and G. Moscardo (Eds.). Embracing and Managing Change in Tourism: International Case Studies (pp. 70-94). USA: Routledge. Lewis, D. (1998). Development NGOs and the Challenge of Partnership: Changing Relations between North and South. Social Policy & Administration, 32 (5), 501-512. Li, W. J. (2006). Community Decision-Making Participation in Tourism Development. Annals of Tourism Research, 33 (11), 132-143. Lincoln, Y. and Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. New York: Sage. Lindbrug, K., Tommy D. A. and Dellaert, B.G.C. (2001). Tourism development: Assessing Social Gains and Losses. Annals of Tourism Research, 28(4): 1010-1030. Long P. T., Nuckolls J., and Sem J. (2008) Q&A About Community Tourism Planning and Development. Tourism Centre, USA: University of Minnesota. Retrieved from: http://www.tourism.umn.edu/ResearchReports /MarketSegments/Agriculture/index.htm Long, V. H. (1993). Techniques for Socially Sustainable Tourism Development: Lessons from Mexico. In J.G. Nelson, R.W. Buttler and G. Wall (Eds.). Tourism and Sustainable Development: Monitoring, Planning, and Managing (pp. 201-218). Waterloo ON: Department of Geography, University of Waterloo. Loza, J. (2004). Business-Community Partnerships: The Case for Community Organisation Capacity Building. Journal of Business Ethics, 53(3), 97-111. Madeley, J. (1996). Foreign Exploits: transnationals and tourism [Briefing Paper]. London: Catholic Institute for International Relations. Mahanama, P. (1998). Socio-Economic Baseline Survey in Muthurajawela: Integrated Resources Management Programme in Sri Lanka, Technical Report 01. Colombo: Central Environmental Authority. Mann, M. (2000). The Community Tourism Guide: Existing Holidays for Responsible Travellers. London: Earthscan Publication. Mathieson, A, and Wall, G (2006) Tourism Change Impacts and Opportunities. London: Prentice Hall. Matthews, H. (1978). International tourism: A political and social analysis. Cambridge: MA Schenkman Publishing. McKercher, B. (1991). The Unrecognised Threat to Tourism: Can Tourism Survive 'Sustainably'? In proceedings of Ecotourism Conference of Canberra. Canberra: Bureau of Tourism Research. Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (2010). Legislation on Environment in Sri Lanka: List of Acts, Statutes and Ordinances. Sri Lanka. Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. Retrieved from http://www .environmentmin.gov.lk/legislations.htm Mitchell, R. E. and Eagles, P. F. J. (2001). An Integrative Approach to Tourism: Lessons from the Andes of Peru. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 9 (1), 4-28. Mitchell, R.E. and Reid, D. G. (2001). Community Integration: Island Tourism in Peru. Annals of Tourism Research, 28: 113-139. Moon, S., Dillon, D. and Sprenkle, D. (1990). Family therapy and qualitative research. Journal of Martial and Family Therapy, 16(4), 357-373. Morse, J. (1991). On the evaluation of qualitative proposals. Qualitative Health Research, 1(2), 147-151. Morse, J. M., Barrett, M., Mayan, M., Olson, K., and Spiers, J. (2002). Verification strategies for establishing reliability and validity in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 1 (2), Article 2. Retrieved from http://www.ualberta .ca/~ijqm/ Mowforth, M. and Munt, I. (1998). Tourism and Sustainability: New Tourism in the Third World. New York: Routledge. Muller, C. (2001). Tourism: Aiming for that magic million. Sri Lanka: Stamford Lake. Murphy, P. E. (1983). Tourism as a community industry: An ecological model of tourism development. Tourism Management, 4 (3), 181-201. Murphy, P.E. (1985). Tourism: A Community Approach, New York: Methuen. Murray, M. and Dunn, L. (1999). Capacity Building for Rural Development in the United States. Journal of Rural Studies, 11(1), 89-97. Murugesu, S. (2005). Sri Lanka: NGOs monitored to prevent abuse of power. Asian Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic .php?t=521 Neto, F. (2003). A New Approach to Sustainable Tourism Development: Moving Beyond Environmental Protection, DESA Discussion Paper No. 29: United Nations. Neuman, W. L. (2000). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (4th ed.). Bostan, MA: Allyn & Bacon Nimmonratana, T. (2000). Impacts of Tourism on a Local Community: A Case Study of Chiang Mai. In K.S. Chon (Ed.), Tourism in Southeast Asia: A New Direction (pp. 65-86). New York: Howarth Press. Nye, N. And Glickman, N. (2000). Working Together: Building Capacity for Community Development. Housing Policy Debate, 11(1): 163-198. Oerlemans, N. and Assouline, G. (2003). Enhancing Farmers’ Networking Strategies for Sustainable Development. Journal of Cleaner Production, 12(5): 469-478. Page, S. J. and Getz, D. (1997). The business of rural tourism: International perspectives. London: International Thomson Business Press. Palmer, R. (2002). Introduction to Concepts Relating to Tourism in Developing Countries. Seminar 2. Grahamstown: Rhodes University. Patel, L. H. (2005). Evaluating Capacity Building and Participatory Development in Community Timber Operations of the Petén, Guatemala. Tropical Resources Bulletin 24 (Spring), 66-72. Patrick, L. and Nuckolls, J (1994). Organising Resources for Rural Tourism Development: The Importance of Leadership, Planning, and Technical Assistance. Tourism Recreation Research, 19(2), 19-34. Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods (3rd ed.). California: Sage Pearce, P.L., Moscardo, G. and Ross, G.F. (1996). Tourism Community Relationships. UK: Elsevier. Peterson, R. M. (2000). Pre-negotiation Planning and Preparation: What is it? Do we do it? Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management. September 22 Issue. Retreeved from http://www.allbusiness.com/management/700575-1.html Pigram, J. (1992). Alternative tourism: Tourism and sustainable resource management. In V. Smith, and W. Eadington (Eds.). Tourism Alternatives: Potentials and Problems in the Development of Tourism (pp. 133-148). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Poplin, D. E. (1972). Communities: A Survey of Theories and Methods of Research, (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan. Pretty, J. (1995). The Many Interpretations of Participation, In Focus, 16: 4-5 Ranasinghe, D.M.S.H.K. (undated). Demand and other Socio-economic Impacts on Mangrove Resources use in Muthurajawela and Negambo Lagoon in Sri Lanka, Final report A-VIII. Sri Lanka: University of Sri Jayewardenepura. Raju, K.A. (2004). A case of harnessing information technology for rural development. The International Information and Library Review, 36 (3): 233-240. Ranasinghe, H. (2009). Community participation is an integral tool in conservation and protection of forests, National Parks and Protected areas: Lessons learned from Sri Lanka. Asia Pacific Ecotourism Conference-2009. Colombo, Sri Lanka Ecotourism Foundation. Rao, K.V. (1995). Research Methodology in Commerce and Management. New Delhi: Sterling. Rao, V. and Woolcock, M. (2005). Mixing Qualitative and Econometric Methods: Community-Level Applications: In D. Narayan (Ed.), Measuring Empowerment: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives (pp. 285-306). Washington: The World Bank. Ratcliff, D. (1995). An Elementary School Hallway: Social Formations and Meanings Outside the Classroom. Ph.D. Dissertation. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Georgia. Retrieved from: http://don.ratcliffs.net/dissertation/ RCTF (undated). Constitution of Ranpathwila Community Tourism Foundation. Sri Lanka: RCTF. Rees, G. and Smith, C. (1998). Economic Development (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan. Reed, M.G. (1998). The provision of environmental goods and services by local non-governmental organisations: An illustration from Squamish Forest District, Canada. Journal of Tourism Studies, 13(2): 177-196. Reid, D. G., Mair, H., George, W. (2004). Community Tourism Planning: A Self-Assessment Instrument. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3): 623-639. Richter, L.K. (1987). The search for appropriate tourism. Tourism Recreation Research, 12: 5-7. Roberts, L. Hall D. (2001). Rural tourism and recreation: principles to practice. Ayr, UK: Leisure and Tourism Management Department, Scottish Agricultural College. Robert, G. (1999). Paradigms and Research Methods. Academy of Management, Research Methods Division, Research Methods Forum, Vol. 4 (Summer): University of Alberta Rocky Mountain Institute (2001). Framework for Community Sustainability: Ten Ingredients for Long-Term Success, Snowmass. Colorado: Rocky Mountain Institute. Ryan, B., Scapens, R.W. and Theobald, M. (1992). Research Methods and Methodology in Finance and Accounting. London: Academic Press. Samarakoon, J.I. and Zon Van, H.C.J. (1991). Environmental Profile of Muthurajawela Marsh and Negombo Lagoon, Greater Colombo Economic Commission. Sri Lanka: Central Environmental Authority. Sarantakos, S (1998). Social Research (2nd ed.). Australia: Macmillan. Selin, S. (1999). Developing a Typology of Sustainable Tourism Partnerships. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 7(3&4): 260-273. Sekaran, U. (2003). Research Methods for Business: A Skill Building Approach (4th ed.). Singapore: John Willey & Sons. Sharpley, R., & Sharpley, J. (1997). Rural tourism: An introduction. London: International Thomson Business Press. Shaw, G. and William, A. M. (2004). Tourism and Tourism Spaces. London: Sage. SLTDA (2001). Annual Statistical Report on Sri Lanka Tourism. Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority. SLTDA (2003). Annual Statistical Report on Sri Lanka Tourism. Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority. SLTDA (2005). Annual Statistical Report on Sri Lanka Tourism. Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority. SLTDA (2008). Annual Statistical Report on Sri Lanka Tourism. Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority. Smith, L.G. (1984). Public Participation in Policy Making: The State-of the-Art in Canada. Geoforum, 15: 253-259. Smith, S.L.J. (1989). Tourism Analysis: A Handbook. UK: Longman. Sofield, T.H.B. (2003). Empowerment for Sustainable Tourism Development. Netherlands: Pergamon. Sowa, J. E. (2009). The Collaboration Decision in Nonprofit Organizations. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 38 (6), 1003-1025. Retrieved from http://nvs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/38/6/1003 Spear, P.W. and Hughey, J. (1995). Community Organising: An Ecological Route to Empowerment and Power. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23(5), 729-749. Sproule, K. (1996). Community-based Ecotourism Development: Identifying the Partners in the Process: The 1996 ISTF Conference, The Ecotourism Equation, 12-14 April. New Haven, IC. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. Strauss, A.L. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. New York: Cambridge University Press. Stynes, D.J. and Stewart, S.I. (1996). Impacts of the Grand Traverse Resort Michigan, USA: Are Perceptions Consistent with “Reality”? In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands (Eds.) Practising Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 239-260) USA: John Wiley & Sons. TCP (2009). Rekawa Sanctuary: The Marine Turtle Paradise. Sri Lanka: Turtle Conservation Project Telfer, D. J. and Sharply, R, (2007). Tourism and Development in the Developing World. New York: Routledge. Thomson, A. M., Perry, J. L., and Miller, T. K. (2009). Conceptualizing and Measuring Collaboration. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory,19 (1), 23-56. Retrieved from http://jpart.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/19/1/23 Timothy, D.J. (1998). Cooperative Tourism Planning in a Developing Destination. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 6(1), 52-68. Timothy, D.J. (1999). Participatory Planning: A View of Tourism in Indonesia. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(2), 371-391 Tosun, C. (2000). Limits to Community Participation in the Tourism Development Process in Developing Countries. Tourism Management, 21, 613-633. Tosun, C. (2005). Stages in the emergence of a participatory tourism development approach in the Developing World. Geoforum, 36: 333-352. Tosun, C. (2006). Expected nature of community participation in tourism development. Tourism Management, 27(3), 1-12. Trakolis, D. (2002). Local people’s perceptions of planning and management issues in Prespes Lakes National Park, Greece. Journal of Environmental Management, 61(3): 227-241. The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka (2010). Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources: Department and Statutory Institutions; Subjects and Functions. Sri Lanka. The Government of Sri Lanka. Retrieved from: http://www.priu.gov.lk/Ministries _2007 /Min _env_natural_resources .html Trochim, W.M. (2000). The research methods knowledge base. Retrieved from: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/ Turner, J (2009). Social Exchange Theory: Future Directions. Retrieved from: http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~as850796/exchange.htm Turner, L. (2002). The international division of leisure tourism and the third world. Annals of Tourism Research, 4(1), 12-24. UNDP (1997). Capacity Development, Technical Advisory Paper II. In UNDP, Capacity Development Resource Book Management Development and Governance Division, New York: UNDP. Retrieved from: http://mirror .undp.org/magnet/cdrb/Techpap2.htm. UNEP (2010). Year of the Turtle kicks off with Call for Cooperation. News Centre, United Nations Environmental Programme. Retrieved from: http://www.unep .org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=471&ArticleID=5210&l=en Ulvila, M. and Hossain, F. (2002). Development NGOs and Political Participation of the Poor in Bangladesh and Nepal. International Journal of Voluntary and Non-profit Organisations, 13(2), 149-163. Valentine, P. (1993). Ecotourism and nature conservation: a definition with some recent developments in Micronesia. Tourism Management, 14: 4. Veal, A.J. (2006). Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: A Practical Guide, (3rd ed.). England: Pearson. Wall, G. (1996). One Name, Two Destinations: Planned and Unplanned Coastal Resorts in Indonesia. In L.C. Harrison and W. Husbands (Eds.). Practising Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development (pp. 41-57). USA: John Wiley & Sons. Walpole, M.J. and Goodwin, H.J. (2001). Local attitudes towards conservation and tourism around Komodo National Park, Indonesia. Environmental Conservation, 28(2): 160-166. Wang, Y., Pfister, R.E., and Moris, B.D. (2006). Residents’ Attitudes towards Tourism Development: A Case Study of Washington, NC. In Proceedings of the 2006 North-eastern Recreation Research Symposium. 411-418. Wearing, S. and Neil, J. (1999). Ecotourism: Impacts Potentials and Possibilities. UK: Butterworth–Heinemann. White, A.T. (1995). Preface. In P. Ganewatte, R.A.D.B. Samaranayake, J.I. Samarakoon, A.T. White, and K. Haywood (Eds.) The Coastal Environmental Profile of Rekawa Lagoon, Sri Lanka (pp. ii-iii). Sri Lanka: Coastal Resources Management Project. Wickramasinghe, K. (2009). Issues and Challenges in Promoting Forest-based Ecotourism in Sri Lanka. Asia-Pacific Regional Ecotourism Conference, 7 – 8 May, 2009. Sri Lanka Ecotourism Foundation, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Wijayawardana K.H.R. and Wickramasinghe Y. M. (undated) Visitor Expectations and Stakeholder Involvements in Eco-Tourism Sites: Reference to the Four Designated Sites in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka: Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. Retrieved from: http://www.ediindia.org/Creed/data%5CKHR% 20Wijayawardena.htm Wijerayaratne, M. (2000). Coastal wetland uses and related problems in Muthurajawela Marsh and Negombo and Chilaw Lagoons. In N. Farmer, (Ed.) Workshop on Effective Management for Biodiversity Conservation in Sri Lankan Wetlands: Muthurajawela Marsh, Negombo Lagoon and Chilaw Lagoon. Report 55. LOCATION: Centre for the Economics and Management of Aquatic Resources, University of Portsmouth. Williams, D.R., McDonald, C.D., Riden, C.M., and Uysal, M. (1995). Community Attachment, Regional Identity and Residents Attitudes in Tourism. In proceedings of the 26th Annual Travel and Tourism Research Association Conference Proceedings (pp. 424-426). Wheat Ridge, CO: Travel and Tourism Research Association. Wikipedia (2009). History of Sri Lanka. Wikipedia Free Encyclopaedia. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka Wikipedia (2007). Provincial Councils in Sri Lanka. Wikipedia Free Encyclopaedia. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provincial_Councils_ (Sri_Lanka)#Provincial_Councils Wikipedia (2007a). Community. Wikipedia Free Encyclopaedia. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community Wikipedia (2007b). Attitudes. Wikipedia Free Encyclopaedia. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology) Wong, P.P. (2000). Coastal Tourism in Southeast Asia: Research from the Environmental Perspective. In K.S. Chon (Ed.), Tourism in Southeast Asia: A New Direction (pp. 107-121). New York: Howarth Press. Wood, D. J., and Gray, B. (1991). Toward a comprehensive theory of collaboration. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 27(2), 139-162. Wood, E.M. (2000). Course Manual: Destination Management Workshop. Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka Tourist Board. World Bank (2009). Data Finder: Population Total. USA: World Bank. Retrieved from http://datafinder.worldbank.org/population-total WTO (1994). National and Regional Tourism Planning: Methodologies and Case Studies. UK: Thomson. WTO (1995). What Tourism Managers Need to Know: A Practical Guide to the Development and Use of Indicators of Sustainable Tourism? Ottawa: Consulting and Audit Canada WTO (1998). WTO in Asia and the Pacific. Madrid: World Tourism Organisation. WTO (2001). Tourism after 11 September 2001: Analysis, remedial actions and prospects. Madrid: World Tourism Organisation. WTO (2002). Tourism and Poverty Alleviation. Madrid: World Tourism Organisation. Young, C. (1982). The Everyday Accountant and Researching his Reality. Accounting Organisation and Society, 8(4): 686-705. Zafirovski, M. (2005). Social Exchange Theory under Scrutiny: A Positive Critique of its Economic-Behaviorist Formulations. Electronic Journal of Sociology, 1-40. |